Executing the Mentally Retarded essays

Executing the Mentally Retarded essays Is executing the mentally retarded Unconstitutional? Is sentencing execution upon a mentally retarded individual unconstitutional? This is a question that has recently been answered by the United States Supreme Court. According to Justice John Paul Stevens executing the mentally retarded is unconstitutional. These issues were stemmed from a recent trial in Virginia that dealt with a mentally retarded male who was sentenced to death. There are conflicting opinions on this issue, that have to do with the interpretation of the eighth amendment the moral views of the supreme court justices, and the citizens of the United States. One might ask, What is the definition of mentally retarded? According to an article written by the Dallas Morning News titled Justices to Review Death Penalty for Mentally Retarded Inmates, states currently use a test containing three questions to determine whether a person is mentally retarded. The first question; is the persons IQ less than 70? (An average persons IQ is 100.) The second question; was mental retardation diagnosed by the age of 18? This is to ensure that a prisoner wouldnt try to act as if he were mentally retarded to get out of being executed. Finally it needs to be determined if the person can function normally in society by his ability to hold a job, live on his or her own and maintain friendships. (Curriden 1) The eighth amendment states that Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment be inflicted. When stated cruel and unusual punishment, does this mean that executing the mentally retarded is unconstitutional? In 1989 the Supreme Court decided in the Penry V. Lynaugh case that executing the mentally retarded was allowed, and was not unconstitutional. (Shultz 2002) In 1996 Daryl Atkins, an 18-year-old man with an IQ of 59 was convicted of murdering Eric Nesbitt, ...

Definition and Examples of Epigraphs in English

Definition and Examples of Epigraphs in English Epigraphs appear at the beginning of many texts, often to set the tone or theme of whats to come. Although theyre not quite as popular a feature as they once were, they still appear in many texts, both older and contemporary. Definitions (1) An epigraph is a brief motto or quotation set at the beginning of a text (a book, a chapter of a book, a thesis or dissertation, an essay, a poem), usually to suggest its theme. Adjective: epigraphic. A good epigraph can attract or even mystify the reader, says Robert Hudson, but it should never confuse (The Christian Writers Manual of Style, 2004). (2) The term epigraph also refers to words inscribed on a wall, a building, or the base of a statue.See Examples and Observations below. Also see: Commonly Confused Words: Epigram, Epigraph, and EpitaphEpigramEpitaphEpithet Etymology From the Greek epigraphe, meaning  an inscription, which is in turn derived from the Greek verb epigraphein, meaning  to mark the surface; write on, inscribe Examples No man is an Iland, intire of it selfe; every man is a peece of the Continent, a part of the maine; if Clod bee washed away by the Sea, Europe is the lesse, as well as if a Promontorie were, as well as if a Mannor of thy friends or of thine owne were; any mans death diminishes me, because I am involved in Mankinde; And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; It tolls for thee.John Donne(epigraph to For Whom the Bell Tolls by Ernest Hemingway, 1940) Mistah Kurtzhe dead.A penny for the Old Guy(epigraphs to The Hollow Men by T.S. Eliot, 1925) The broad-backed hippopotamusRests on his belly in the mud;Although he seems so firm to usHe is merely flesh and blood.The Hippopotamus, T.S. Eliot(epigraph to The Hippopotamus by Stephen Fry, 1994) Historia, ae, f. 1. inquiry, investigation, learning.2. a) a narrative of past events, history. b) any kind of narrative: account, tale, story.Ours was the marsh country . . .Great Expectations(epigraphs to Waterland by Graham Swift, 1983) History begins only at the point where things go wrong; history is born only with trouble, with perplexity, with regret.Waterland(epigraph to Evening Is the Whole Day by Preeta Samarasan, 2009) Life imitates art.Oscar WildeI would be a Papist if I could. I have fearenough, but an obstinate rationality prevents me.Dr. Johnson(epigraphs to The British Museum Is Falling Down by David Lodge, 1965) Observations The custom of using epigraphs becomes more widespread during the eighteenth century, when we find them (generally in Latin) at the head of some major works . . .. A somewhat late-developing custom, then, which more or less replaces the classical custom of using dedicatory epistles and which, in its beginnings, seems a little more typical of works of ideas than of poetry or the novel.(Gà ©rard Genette, Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation. Cambridge University Press, 1997) Epigraphs in Theses and Dissertations If your department or university allows epigraphs, you may include a brief one in addition to or instead of a dedication. . . . Place the epigraph a third of the way down the page, either centered or treated as a block quotation . . ... Do not enclose it in quotation marks. Give the source on a new line, set flush right and preceded by an em dash. Often the authors name alone is sufficient, but you may also include the title of the work and, if it seems relevant, the date of the quotation.(Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, 8th ed. The University of Chicago Press, 2013) Epigraphic Strategies Having surveyed 700 years of literary epigraphs to compile The Art of the Epigraph: How Great Books Begin, I found that the links between books and their epigraphs and the epigraphs sources are as individual as the authors involved. Still, certain strategies emerge. It seems authors follow at least one of three dictums, and often all three simultaneously: Be Brief: While the modern epigraph evolved from the lengthy prefaces of early novels like Don Quixote (1605) and Gullivers Travels (1726), many authors have adopted the less-is-more approach. One of the most famous epigraphs is a mere two words: Only connect. Thus E.M. Forster announced the theme of Howards End (1910) while dispensing valuable life advice. . . . Brevity amplifies truth and seals it in our memories. Be Funny: Humor is as essential in literature as it is in life. No one understood this better than Vladimir Nabokov, who delighted in subverting expectations. He introduced The Gift, issued in English in 1963, with this excerpt from a Russian grammar book: An oak is a tree. A rose is a flower. A deer is an animal. A sparrow is a bird. Russia is our fatherland. Death is inevitable. . Be Wise: Epigraphs appeal to those of us who value a good insight. In the one for her 2009 novel A Gate at the Stairs, Lorrie Moore suggests that her aim is to examine some painful truths but also to impart the wisdom to bear those truths: All seats provide equal viewing of the universe (Museum Guide, Hayden Planetarium).(Rosemary Ahern, But First, a Few Choice Words. The Wall Street Journal, November 3-4, 2012)

The Relationship Between Magnetism and Electricity by Bidisha Essay

The Relationship Between Magnetism and Electricity by Bidisha Mukherjee - Essay Example Similarly, a changing magnetic field produces and effects an electric current. However, if a static charge is placed in an electric field, or if the magnetic field is made static, one field would neither produce nor effect the other field. This phenomenon has been put to use in many devise which work on the principle of changing fields. The basic reason for the interplay of fields is that in an atom, a negative charge, the electron, is spinning around a positive core, the nucleus, producing a loop of electric field as a result of this motion. This electric field in turn produces a magnetic field. The article then proceeds to describe the concept of a field, and the scientists who have worked on this relationship between the two fields. It then lists several principles or characteristics of this interchange of fields. It focuses mainly on the need for movement of the particles if a field is to be induced by another field. It also states that both the poles of a magnet, the north and t he south pole, coexist, and there can be no existence of one without the other.

Response for Ahmed Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Response for Ahmed - Essay Example However, the enormous spelling and grammar errors destroy the flow of thought of the readers because one has to try to comprehend the idea being presented. Therefore, the writer must give more attention to his sentence construction and double check spellings and grammar before handing his paper. Consistency should also be given attention to because it can affect how the readers follow the narration, especially when there are several characters being discussed. This flaw is seen in the latter part of the second paragraph wherein he referred to Britney Spears as â€Å"him†. Moreover, there are ideas that the author seems to introduce but fails to wrap up in his statement. For instance, on the last two statements in the fourth paragraph, the writer talks about her feelings expressed in her songs and then proceeds to cite a song as an example. However, instead of linking the example to what he was trying to point out, the author talks about the singer’s sincerity in indulgi ng in her passions. Something is missing in the statements and this affects the flow of the writer’s

Linguistics and Children Essay Example for Free

Linguistics and Children Essay The power of language to reflect culture and influence thinking was first proposed by an American linguist and anthropologist, Edward Sapir (1884–1939), and his student, Benjamin Whorf (1897–1941). The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis stated that the way we think and view the world is determined by our language (Anderson Lightfoot, 2002; Crystal, 1987; Hayes, Ornstein, Gage, 1987). Instances of cultural language differences are evidenced in that some languages have specific words for concepts whereas other languages use several words to represent a specific concept. For example, the Arabic language includes many specific words for designating a certain type of horse or camel (Crystal, 1987). To make such distinctions in English, where specific words do not exist, adjectives would be used preceding the concept label, such as quarter horse or dray horse. Cultural differences have also been noted in the ways in which language is used pragmatically. In our American culture, new skills are typically taught and learned through verbal instruction (Slobin, 1979). In some cultures, new skills are learned through nonverbal observation. A distinction has also been made between cultures that encourage independent learning and those that encourage cooperative learning (McLeod, 1994). Differences in the social roles of adults and children also influence how language is used. Home and school contexts may represent different cultures, subcultures, or both and may influence language acquisition in noticeable ways. Nonverbal cues (e. g. , facial expression) and contextual cues (e. g. , shared experience) have different communicative roles in different cultures (Kaiser Rasminsky, 2003). In some cultures, prelinguistic children (who are not yet verbalizing) are spoken about rather than spoken to (Heath, 1983). Children may be expected, and thus taught, to speak only when an adult addresses them. They are not encouraged to initiate conversations with adults or to join spontaneously in ongoing adult conversations. Additionally, in some cultures, children who enthusiastically volunteer answers at school are considered show-offs (Peregoy Boyle, 1993). In some cultural settings, children are not asked recitational questions. Instead, they are asked only questions of clarification or for new information. Thus, when these children experience recitational questions in a school setting, they may be confused as to the purpose of the questioning and the expected response. Further cultural differences in how language is used in educational settings have been documented by Tharp (1994). These differences include variations in how stories are told, the wait time given by teachers to students during questioning sequences, the rhythmic patterns of the verbal interactions, and the patterns of conversational turn-taking. During the 1970s and 1980s, educators and linguists researched and debated the verbal-deficit perspective. This perspective contended that anyone who did not use standard English did not have a valid language and thus was verbally deficient. Although the verbal-deficit perspective has now been proven invalid, it is important to understand the research that was conducted to either support or discredit that perspective. Bernstein (1971), Bereiter and Englemann (1966), and Labov (1979) were among the researchers who studied language differences between different social groups, including middle- and lower-income groups and ethnic groups. This body of research identified specific differences in the way children from different socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds used language in school and out-of-school settings. Implications of this research have been widely discussed and interpreted in a variety of ways. Basil Bernstein (1971) documented the different linguistic codes used by children from lower- and middle-income families in England. Lower-income children were described as using a â€Å"restricted code† or highly contextualized language, while children from middle-income families used an â€Å"elaborated code,† or decontextualized language. His research also documented differences in school achievement for these two groups of children. Interpretations of Bernstein’s work concluded a cause–effect relation between language use and school success, supporting a â€Å"verbal deficit† perspective: the working-class environment of the low-income children created a verbal deficiency responsible for subsequent low educational achievement (Winch, 1990). Here in the United States, Bereiter and Englemann (1966) conducted further research from the verbal-deficit perspective. They focused on the language of preschool African American children in Urbana, Illinois. Bereiter and Engleman concluded that the language used by African American children was not a valid language and thus recommended that these children needed to be taught English in the school setting (Winch, 1990). Academically oriented preschool curricula were developed (e. g. , Blank, Rose, Berlin, 1978) to provide the needed English language training for verbally deficient children. William Labov (1979; Winch, 1990) explored social dialects of lower income African American children in urban settings. He studied the differences in children’s in-school and out-of-school (e. g. , playground) language competencies. His data directly challenged the verbal-deficit theory because it documented the elaborated and systematic linguistic properties of Black English. His research supported the idea that Black English was a separate language system with its own grammar and rules. Labov described dialects as having â€Å"slightly different versions of the same rules, extending and modifying the grammatical processes which are common to all dialects of English† (Labov, 1995, p.54). Labov’s research supported the idea that verbal differences are not verbal deficits. Because Labov’s research focused on language used in academic and nonschool settings, he also created a greater awareness of the role of context and dialect in communication. Tough (1977) conducted a longitudinal study of children from advantaged (college-educated, professional parents) and disadvantaged (parents who were in unskilled or semiskilled occupations) homes. The study began when the children were 3 years old, with follow-up at 5 1? 2 and 7 1? 2 years. At age 3, the disadvantaged children and the advantaged children showed significant differences in the ways they used language. Specifically, the disadvantaged children did not use language to recall and give details of prior experiences, anticipate upcoming events and possible outcomes, reason about current and remembered events, problem solve using language for planning and considering alternatives, reach solutions, create and sustain dramatic play events, and understand others’ experiences and feelings. When these children were studied again at 5 1? 2 and 7 1? 2 years, the disadvantaged children produced shorter, less complex responses. This research contributed to our understanding that children from different cultural environments may be learning to use language differently and may experience difficulty in participating in the language environment in classrooms. Further awareness of the role of cultural environments in the acquisition of language was influenced in the 1980s by ethnographic research techniques that were used by language researchers. Ethnographic studies have contributed significantly to our understanding of linguistic diversity. Ethnography uses participant observation in real-life settings and focuses on individuals within their social and cultural contexts. In her ethnographic study, Heath (1983) explored children’s acquisition of language at home and school in two communities in the southeastern United States. She found differences in communication in working-class black and white families as well as among middle-class townspeople of both ethnic groups. Heath also described differences in story structures, language, and sense of â€Å"truth† (fiction vs. nonfiction) that children learned at home that were different from those expected at school. To be successful at school, these children had to be able â€Å"to recognize when a story is expected to be true, when to stick to the facts, and when to use their imaginations† (Heath, 1983, p. 294). Heath’s research also documented valid and authentic differences in the ways language is used and in the ways in which children in those respective communities become competent language users. Heath concluded that the contrasts she found in language were not based on race, but on complex cultural influences in each community. The importance of family context in language acquisition was more recently described by Hart and Risley (1995, 1999). Findings from their longitudinal study document the significance of â€Å"talkativeness† in families in influencing language acquisition rather than the family’s socioeconomic status or ethnic group identity. Differences in language use were attributed to the complex family culture—not simply due to socioeconomic status or ethnic group identity. Among the families that were studied, the most important difference was in the amount of talking. Children in families where there was more talking developed higher levels of language in the areas of vocabulary growth and vocabulary use. These differences were strongly linked to school performance at age 9. Among these families, Hart and Risley (1995) identified five quality features in parents’ language interactions with their children: 1. Language diversity: the variation and amount of nouns and modifiers used by the parents 2. Feedback tone: the positive feedback given to children’s participation in the interaction 3. Symbolic emphasis: the emphasis placed on focusing on names and associated relations of the concepts and the recall of those symbols 4. Guidance style: parental interaction that used asking rather than demanding in eliciting specific behavior from the child 5. Responsiveness: parental responsiveness to requests or questions initiated by children Hart and Risley (1995) speculated that these categories may be â€Å"important for the language-based analytic and symbolic competencies upon which advanced education and a global economy depend† (p. 193). A current hypothesis on why children from diverse linguistic backgrounds experience difficulty in school is the socialization mismatch hypothesis. This hypothesis â€Å"predicts that children are more likely to succeed in school when the home language and literacy socialization patterns are similar to those that are used and valued in school† (Faltis, 1998, p. 23). This hypothesis has been applied to children who speak a nonstandard English dialect as well as to children who are learning a second language. Home language socialization patterns may differ from those favored in the school classroom in the following ways (Faltis, 1998): 1. The amount of talk directed to preschool children 2. The participation of young children as conversation partners with adults 3. Opportunities children have to explain or give a personal interpretation of events 4. The types of questions asked of children during storybook sharing 5. The forms of narrative that are used (e. g. , fiction, nonfiction, or ongoing narratives) In addition, the social interaction patterns used in the classroom may vary from the home culture’s with respect to expectations for competitive versus collaborative or cooperative activities as well as the â€Å"courtesies and conventions of conversations† (Tharp, 1994, p. 140).

Literature - A Mirror Of Society :: essays research papers

The literature of a country is affected and influenced by how the people of that country live. This paper will prove that The French Revolution greatly influenced 19th Century French Romanticism. First, the cultural values of the revolution will be identified. Then, the different aspects of Romanticism will be presented. The cultural values of The French Revolution and Romanticism will then be linked. Finally, literary examples will be shown to support this connection between the two movements. Before the Revolution, the citizens of France lived in a strict, confined society with no freedom to express their feelings. Government had imposed strong, unfair laws on the common people (Compton’s Interactive Encyclopedia â€Å"French Revolution†). They wanted a voice in a stable government with a strong economy (Johnson 105) and a strong sense of individuality and independence within the people. (Moss and Wilson 180) Eighteenth- century literature was much like the society in which it was produced, restrained. Society was divided into privileged and unprivileged classes, (Leinward 452) with Eighteenth- century writers focusing on the lives of the upper class. (Thompson 857) These writers followed â€Å"formal rules†(Thorlby 282), and based their works on scientific observations and logic (Thompson 895). The Revolution gave the common people and writers more freedom to express feelings and stimulated them to use reason. According to Thompson, The Revolution â€Å"had a major impact on Nineteenth- Century European Life.† (895) It sent a strong wave of emotion and revival throughout France (Peyre 59). This lead to new laws and standards for the citizens, including newer, less imposing literary standards. Romanticism marked a profound change in both literature and thought. Romanticism, according to Webster’s Dictionary, is defined as â€Å"a literary movement (as in early 19th century Europe) marked especially by an emphasis on the imagination and emotions and by the use of autobiographical material.† Although this may be true, there is no single commonly accepted definition of Romanticism, but it has some features upon which there is general agreement. First, it emphasized upon human reason, feeling, emotion, and expression (Compton’s Interactive Encyclopedia, â€Å"Romanticism†) while emphasizing the love of nature, beauty, and liberty. (Leinward 528-529) Thompson defines Romanticism as â€Å" a major literary and cultural movement† that was inspired by the imaginations, inner feelings, and emotions of the Romantics. (895) If one term can be used to describe the forces that have shaped the modern world, it is Romanticism. (Peyre, 2) Romanticism has had such a profound effect on the world since the late 18th century that one author has called it â€Å"the profoundest cultural transformation in human history since the invention of the city.† (Compton’s Encyclopedia, â€Å"Romanticism†) Harvey and Heseltine state that â€Å"The outstanding characteristic of 18th-century French literature had been attached to

Aspects of schooling Essay

Society is regularly called upon to make ethical judgments related to all aspects of schooling. These considerations of right and wrong are made when creating the school curriculum, practicing teaching and learning methods, and budget issues. Education is a vital part of society in which everyone plays a role. It is not only the role of parents and teachers to support a child’s education, but also the role of the whole society to provide a structure of living that supports what is being taught. The purpose of education is to provide a way for others to learn. However, the motive of learning can vary. Some people may learn out of pure interest, whereas others may learn to be able to function in society by getting a job. Education can occur in any environment where there is a will to learn. Furthermore, learning is not dependent on a teacher or any institute but can also occur as self-learning. The best teaching methods are always those that are chosen by the student, not the teacher. Many students prefer learning methods in which they can apply their knowledge practically. Students learn effectively through hands-on experience. Apart from this, any exposure that can be provided to students of their area of study also helps the student learn their role and their future job within the society. Such exposure can be provided through field trips or inviting professionals related to the students’ field of study to address the students. Support can also be provided to studen ts through alumni groups and career counselors. In this way, the purpose of education and method of education depends largely on the learner or student, not the teacher or institute. There are two main roles that schools play. The first role is towards their students. This is the relationship that the school maintains with its students. The other role is towards society. This includes the school’s participation in public activities such as fund-raising, organizing public events, or participation in any public demonstrations. The role of schools towards society also includes how schools prepare their students to be better members of the society. We must realize here that the latter role of schools, namely that of allowing its students to be better members of society, is not the sole responsibility of the schools. It is true that we usually look upon the teacher and other school officials as the educational leader, role model, and decision-maker towards a child’s education. This is an unfortunate fact because teachers can never teach everything to students. Unfortunately, parents often use educational institutes as a way of neglecting their child. Many parents may show love and support for their child by admitting them to an expensive school. However, this has a negative effect when parents think that they can pay others to keep their child happy and educate them properly. Parents and society as a whole must take responsibility by helping students towards being better human beings. Communication and the ability to speak freely are also involved in this area. Teachers, parents and students must be willing to communicate with each other and discuss ways to improve the level of education. The learning community is not just restricted to students, teachers, and school authorities. The student must never feel intimidated of approaching others and speaking freely, whether it is to a teacher, parent, or anyone else they may encounter in their everyday life. The school curriculum should firstly include that material which will be most useful to the student. If the curriculum deviates from what the student wants to learn then the student will quickly lose interest. In general education, the curriculum should be as vast as possible to allow students to learn about different subjects. In contrast, any curriculum of a specific subject or catering to a specific profession such as art, science or business should be more focused and practical in terms of helping the student later in their career. However, all curricula should also provide a basic level of education such as English and other life skills subjects that will help the student function more effectively within society. Learning should occur in an environment that is healthy not just physically but also mentally and socially. Physical conditions do play a role towards how well the students learn. When teaching a large group of students the room must be well ventilated and be large enough to accommodate the students comfortably. These types of situations normally arise during school lectures or assemblies. However, it is absolutely crucial that every student also receives some individual attention. This can be done either by making the classes smaller so there are less students per teacher or arranging a schedule in which each student is allowed to have individual meetings with the teacher. It is the purpose of teachers and institutes to teach relevant material effectively. Everyone learns differently for different reasons. To teach successfully, teachers must first learn about their students. They must assess what interests their student, why the student is attending their class, and how they can help the student learn. Teachers must act as tools of education and be approachable. References: Ballantine, Jeanne H. (1989). Schools And Society. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Karabel, Jerome and A.H. Halsey. (1977). Power And Ideology In Education. New York, NY: Oxford University Press Lazerson, Marvin. (1987). American Education In The Twentieth Century. New York, NY: Teachers College Press Levine, David A. (2002). Building Classroom Communities: Strategies For Developing A Culture Of Caring. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Mayer, Susan E and Paul E. Peterson. (1999). Earning And Learning: How Schools Matter. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press Mendler, Allen N. (2000). Motivating Students Who Don’t Care: Successful Techniques For Educators. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree