Tuesday, October 22, 2019

20 Best Study Playlist Ideas for College Students

20 Best Study Playlist Ideas for College Students Building playlists is more art than science. There’s nearly limitless songs to choose from, with countless others being uploaded by bands and record labels around the globe every month. The internet is awash with different playlist building websites and services like Pandora or Spotify, so let’s start talking about 20 of the best study playlist ideas that can get you started. Enjoy! Idea #1: Consistently Random Conversations Playlist: The joy of playlist building is in the discovery of new music. You can browse other people’s playlists online and spend hours listening to songs you know nothing about, or you can make it a habit to talk with people about their playlists (we all have them) and get direct recommendations. After a while you can have a really random playlist that keeps the creative/memory juices flowing for study. Idea #2: The Healthy Mix Playlist: Try not to stick with one genre of music while you study. Make sure that the energy moves up and down. Quiet at times, but then louder or more upbeat at others. There should be highs and lows. You’ll find that this will make it easier for you to focus and sustain your brain power for longer. Idea #3: Generational Hop Scotch Playlist: Pick songs from the 50s, 60s, 70s, 80s, 90s and 21st century songs and then make sure that the shuffle is awesome or that they’re arranged in a certain way so that you bounce around. This can be especially useful for contemporary history classes/majors! Idea #4: The Wordless Eastern Euro-Trance Playlist: I’ve got two words for you, Paul Oakenfold. If you’re unfamiliar with European Trance, or Lyrical Trance then prepare to experience something with real drive. Paul has hours of content and it’s almost all without exception awesome for study sessions. Idea #5: Opera Creationism Playlist: Choose a language you know nothing about, like say Japanese or Italian, and then build a playlist of symphonic opera songs. Those things will make you think, and they’re really sensual. Idea #6: The Almighty Grouch Playlist: If you’re looking for Hip Hop with something to say, that’s intellectually seductive, then build a playlist of songs from â€Å"The Grouch† and you won’t be disappointed. Idea #7: The Themed Playlist: You could build around an emotion, a certain day of the week or make it seasonal. Picking themes is the easy part, and you’ll be hard-pressed to think of one that hasn’t been tried yet. There are tens of thousands of playlists out there. Idea #8: The Ambient Playlist: Wordless, driving, drifting, pulsing, flowing. Ambient music is really cool. Just make sure that you get some songs with energy or you might fall asleep on your textbook! Idea #9: The Fitness-based Playlist: Studying is the equivalent of a great workout for your mind. Build a mental workout playlist! It’s almost too easy to build playlists for sweating in the gym, why not the library? Idea #10: The Nostalgic Playlist: Take it back to childhood, unless you were raised by wolves or something, but even then you could do an â€Å"Underworld† themed playlist. Go for a â€Å"Werewolf† playlist! The idea is to take yourself into the past where you can feel comfortable and settle into your studies. Idea #11: The Adrenaline Rush Playlist: These playlists should be entirely composed of songs that make you feel like you’re cliff diving. Idea #12: Visions of Greatness Playlist: When you tilt your head, get that misty look in your eyes and picture a time when you’re a true success, what songs come to mind? What songs will people listen to as they visit the many statues of your likeness? Idea #13: The Instrumental Hip Hop Playlist: It’s Hip Hop without the words so there won’t be anything to distract you. Lyrics can be a mental nuisance to some when they’re trying to study. Idea #14: The Meditative State Playlist: There’s a big difference between ambient and meditative songs. Meditative stuff is far calmer, typically sporting some howls of the wind with soothing wave sounds†¦something like that. Again, just try not to fall asleep or into a meditative state while studying for a math exam or reading. Idea #15: Going Full-Acoustic Playlist: Acoustic guitar + great vocals = on the playlist. Make it feel like a campfire session. Idea #16: The Swing Playlist: When was the last time you listened to some quality Swing from the 20s and 30s? Check it out! Idea #17: The International Focus Playlist: Pick a county or a group of regional nations and build a playlist of the top hits they’re sporting. Idea #18: The My Funeral Playlist: What songs would you want to play at your funeral? Or better yet, if you could have a music player installed into your tombstone that would just continue to play on and on at your grave†¦? Hey, it could be solar powered! Idea #19: The Getaway Playlist: Imagine you’re in a car running from the mob, the law or perhaps alien spacecraft. What are the perfect songs for a high speed getaway? Tip: they should help you focus. Idea #20: The When I Was Born Playlist: What were the songs of the day on the day you were born? What about you though, what’s your study playlist look like and why?

Monday, October 21, 2019

The Worlds Impact on Trade essays

The Worlds Impact on Trade essays In the early fifteenth century the way of transportation was via ship. This transatlantic world called for other means of survival than just food alone. Therefore, people needed more to stay alive and pleased. Ships helped out with many tasks including getting from one part of the world to the other, discovery of new territories, cultures, foods, and goods, but most importantly, it helped out with trade. Through the help of the ship, brave sailors, and newly discovered merchandise, trade helped Europe dominate and expand over the world. It is difficult to comprehend how Europe became so powerful when the view of the globe was so narrow. They did this through purchasing goods, moving them to another territory where they were not known and selling them for a profit. This was known as mercantilism and the Europeans did it with much eagerness. By the sixteen hundreds, the Europeans covered most of the shores of America and came into contact with Africa. Africa was a home to wealthy kingdoms, primarily in West Africa, based on a trade of gold for salt. West Africa needed salt and North Africa wanted gold. Europe came to be involved with Africa in what started out as wanting a part of the gold, but ended up overpowering the cities in Africa. They took the feeble citizens as slaves to sell for trade, and they succeeded in doing so. Some citizens volunteered as indentured servants thinking that they were going to be paid, but it ended up as a rude awakening for them. Slaves, sadly, provided cheap and reliable lab or to provide commodities for the west European markets. About ten million slaves from Africa ended up in the New World plantations, while many more were captured and died on the way over. If there was a profit to be made, the people were interested. The Europeans economy changed from a large negotiating financial system to a moneymaking system. Merchandise from all over circulated through Europe and they...

Sunday, October 20, 2019

Whats Tested on the SAT Math Section Topics and Practice

What's Tested on the SAT Math Section Topics and Practice SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Your first step in preparing for the math section of the SAT should be familiarizing yourself with exactly what’s on it. Whatever math class you’re taking in school, you should be able to conquer the SAT math topics with the right approach to test prep. Let’s start this guide by reviewing the overall format of the math section of the SAT. SAT Math Format Math will be your third and fourth sections on the SAT, right after Reading and Writing Language. You’ll first get a 25-minute section, during which you can’t use a calculator. After a short break, you’ll move onto the 55-minute section. During this longer section, you’re allowed to use your calculator. Both sections will begin with multiple-choice questions, each of which will feature four answer choices. Then you’ll be asked for some student-produced responses, more commonly known as "grid-ins." On the calculator section, some of these grid-ins will relate to one another as part of an Extended Thinking question. // Here’s the breakdown of time, number of questions, and question types on the two SAT math sections. Section Number of Questions Time No calculator 15 multiple choice, 5 grid-ins 25 minutes Calculator 30 multiple choice, 8 grid-ins (including one Extended Thinking question) 55 minutes Total 58 questions 80 minutes While you can only use a calculator on the longer Math section, you’ll have access to the following reference information for geometry in both sections: Of course, you’d be better off having this information memorized than wasting time flipping back in your test booklet to these formulas. This material isn’t actually all that important on the math section, as geometry problems make up less than 10% of the questions. That being said, what skills and concepts are most prevalent in the math section? Content is king! Or, at least, it's very important to master before you take the SAT. SAT Math Topics // While the math section doesn’t place a large emphasis on geometry problems, it does focus on algebra, solving equations, and data interpretation from tables and graphs. College Board sorts the question types into three main categories: Heart of Algebra, Passport to Advanced Math, and Problem Solving and Data Analysis (they apparently gave up on the creative naming once they reached the third category). These three realms describe about 90% of the SAT math questions. The remaining 10% are simply called Additional Topics, and they mainly include geometry, basic trigonometry, and complex numbers. Let’s take a closer look at each of these categories by going over the SAT math topics and skills they test. After a description of each one, you’ll see three official sample practice questions from College Board. Heart of Algebra SAT math questions in the Heart of Algebra category have to do with linear equations, inequalities, functions, and graphs. Below are the official topics as defined by College Board, followed by a summary of tasks you’ll need to be prepared for to tackle these questions and some example problems. // Official Topics Solving linear equations and linear inequalities (in these expressions, x is a constant or the product of a constant) Interpreting linear functions Linear inequality and equation word problems Graphing linear equations Linear function word problems Systems of linear inequalities word problems Solving systems of linear equations Summary of Tasks // Use multiple steps to simplify an expression or equation or solve for a variable. Solve for a variable within functions or systems of inequalities with two variables (usually x and y). Determine whether a given point is in a solution set or what value would make an expression have no solution. Select a graph that shows an algebraic equation, or, on the flip side, choose the equation that describes a graph. Indicate how a graph would be affected by a given change in its equation. Sample Questions Solving systems of linear equations: Solving systems of linear inequalities: Graphing a linear equation: Grab your passport- we're crossing the border into the land of advanced math. // Passport to Advanced Math While Heart of Algebra questions are focused on linear equations, Passport to Advanced Math questions have to do with nonlinear expressions, or expressions in which a variable is raised to an exponent that’s not zero or one. These questions will ask you to work with quadratic equations, exponential expressions, and word problems. Read on for the full list of topics that fall under Passport to Advanced Math, followed by a summary of tasks and three sample SAT questions. Official Topics Solving quadratic equations Interpreting nonlinear expressions Quadratic and exponential word problems Radicals and rational exponents Operations with rational expressions and polynomials Polynomial factors and graphs Nonlinear equation graphs Linear and quadratic systems Structure in expressions Isolating quantities Functions // Summary of Tasks Solve equations by factoring or using other methods to rewrite them in another form. Add, subtract, multiply, or divide two rational expressions or divide two polynomial expressions and simplify your results. Select a graph that matches a nonlinear equation or an equation that corresponds to a graph. Determine the equation of a curve from a description of a graph. Figure out how a graph would change if its equation changed. Sample Questions Functions: Nonlinear expressions: // Nonlinear equation graphs: Problem Solving and Data Analysis This third and final major category includes questions that ask you to work with rates, ratios, percentages, and data from graphs and tables. Read on for the official topics, a summary of tasks, and three sample questions. Official Topics Ratios, rates, and proportions Percents Units Table data Scatterplots Key features of graphs Linear and exponential growth Data inferences Center, spread, and shape of distributions Data collection and conclusions // Summary of Tasks Solve multi-step problems to calculate ratio, rate, percentage, unit rate, or density. Use a given ratio, rate, percentage, unit rate, or density to solve a multistep problem. Select an equation that best fits a scatterplot. Use tables to summarize data, such as probabilities. Estimate populations based on sample data. Use statistics to determine mean, median, mode, range, and/or standard deviation. Evaluate tables, graphs, or text summaries. Determine the accuracy of a data collection method. // Sample Questions Calculating data based on rate: Scatterplot and calculating rate: Calculating percentage based on table data: These next few categories don't quite fit anywhere else. Additional Topics in Math While 90% of your questions will fall into the Heart of Algebra, Passport to Advanced Math, or Problem Solving and Data Analysis categories, the remaining 10% will simply be classified as Additional Topics. These topics include geometry, trigonometry, and problems with complex numbers. Official Topics // Volume word problems Right triangle word problems Congruence and similarity Right triangle geometry Angles, arc lengths, and trig functions Circle theorems Circle equations Complex numbers Summary of Tasks // Determine volume of a shape. Apply properties of triangles to determine side length or angle measure. Apply properties of circles to measure arc length and area. Solve problems with sine, cosine, and tangent. Sample Questions Right triangle problem with trigonometric functions: Congruence and similarity: Angles and parallel lines: To truly prepare for the math section of the SAT, you should make sure to review all of the above mentioned topics. Some problems, furthermore, will integrate topics and require you to apply multiple skills and concepts as you work toward a solution. Multi-step problems are prevalent throughout the math section. Let’s take a closer look at multi-step problems, along with the other main features you need to be aware of as you prep for SAT Math. // Grab your snacks and turn off your cell phone- it's time for the main feature(s)! What Are the Key Features of SAT Math? In addition to understanding content and format of the SAT Math section, there are some key features you should know about. As you study, keep an eye out for these features. By familiarizing yourself with them, you may even be able to use practice materials for the old SAT effectively to prepare for the current SAT. Multi-Step Problems You may notice that several of the above problem types state that they require multiple steps to solve. While wording of math questions should be straightforward, the thinking and calculations required will be relatively involved. To prepare, you'll especially want to focus on time management and working quickly and efficiently. // To solve a word problem, you may have to combine skills from one more than one content area or use several steps to get to your answer. Word problems may present a long scenario, and you’ll need to figure out what data to use and what concepts to apply to get to your answer. Speaking of word problems... Emphasis on â€Å"Real World† Applications According to College Board, much of its purpose behind redesigning the SAT was to make the test more closely aligned with classroom learning and real world skills. As a result, the math section won’t feature too many abstract reasoning questions. Instead, the word problems will be grounded in realistic situations. Some may ask you to calculate gas left in a car’s gas tank or the conversion of money from one country’s currency to another. Most word problems will present scenarios that you might encounter in your life. // There will be a few questions that test your understanding of sines. Also, cosines and tangents. A Few Geometry and Trigonometry Questions About 10% of the questions will feature geometry and/or trigonometry. Since not everyone has studied trigonometry in school by the time they take the SAT, these questions may call for separate, SAT-specific preparation. You should acquaint yourself with the relevant concepts and formulas, but focus most of your energies on preparing for algebra, functions, inequalities, graphs, and word problems. A No-Calculator Section and a Calculator Section For 25 minutes, you won’t be able to bring out your calculator to answer any of the math questions. There’s no need to worry! The problems in the 25-minute section won’t require a calculator; in fact, using one on those problems would probably just slow you down. // Calculator fluency, or knowing how and when to use your calculator effectively, is an important skill on the SAT math. The College Board says, â€Å"Calculators are important tools, and...you’ll need to know how - and when - to use them...The calculator is, like any tool, only as smart as the person using it. The Math Test includes some questions where it’s better not to use a calculator, even though you’re allowed to.† So you definitely won’t need one on the shorter â€Å"no calculator† section, and you may not even need one on many of the problems in the longer â€Å"calculator† section. Answering lots of practice questions can help you get better at deciding when a calculator would be helpful and when it would just slow you down. An Extended Thinking Problem A few of your questions will be part of an Extended Thinking problem. Typically, this Extended Thinking problem will be part of the grid-in questions near the end of your 55-minute section. // Basically, you’ll get a graph, table, or word problem scenario and then have to answer multiple questions about it. The following is one example of a word problem-based Extended Thinking question. Notice the bent toward â€Å"real world† application! Grid-in Math Questions Speaking of grid-ins, you'll have thirteen of these student-produced responses that you'll answer in a special part of the bubble sheet at the bottom. While you can write your answer in the spaces provided, you'll have to fill in the corresponding bubbles for credit. There are bubbles for digits between 0 and 9, as well as for decimal point (a period) and fraction line (a slash). To practice gridding in your responses, you can practice on College Board's SAT practice test answer sheet. As long as you're familiar with the key features and directions of SAT Math, you can hit the ground running and not waste time figuring out logistics. So whether you're prepping with PrepScholar, online practice questions, official College Board tests, or a combination of all of these, how should you approach prepping for SAT Math? // Unleash the power of prep. How You Should Study SAT Math Many of the concepts on SAT Math you'll learn in your math classes in school. This doesn't mean that classwork will prepare you enough to perform well on the SAT, though. SAT Math questions test the above concepts in a unique, SAT-specific way. In order to prepare and learn to be speedy in your time management, you'll want to practice and get familiar with the wording with high-quality practice questions. Official practice tests will also help you uncover and diagnose your strengths and weaknesses. If you find yourself consistently stumped by function questions, for example, you'll know to focus your energy and studying there. Even if you haven't taken an advanced algebra or trigonometry class yet in school, you can still prep for these questions by studying SAT concepts and questions. If you're strong in math and looking to achieve a top score, you want to approach the math section in a strategic way. This perfect scorer shares the techniques he used and how they can help you score at or near 800 on your SAT math. What's Next? // Are you scoring on the low side on math and hoping to break 600? Here are the steps you need to take to score a 600 or more on the SAT math. Looking for book recommendations specific to the math section? Here are our suggestions for the best prep books for SAT Math, along with a few pointers on how to use them most effectively. Want to make sure you're solid on math basics before diving into SAT Math? Check out our refresher articles on solving inequalities, adding and subtracting fractions, multiplication, perfect squares, and the distributive property. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points? Check out our best-in-class online SAT prep classes. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your SAT score by 160 points or more. Our classes are entirely online, and they're taught by SAT experts. If you liked this article, you'll love our classes. Along with expert-led classes, you'll get personalized homework with thousands of practice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step, custom program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Try it risk-free today:

Saturday, October 19, 2019

Corporate governance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Corporate governance - Essay Example However, with tightening the belt on the expenditure Stamford International could realize a fruitful financial year as the previous year. With a successful previous financial year, the company has been reluctant to ensure that all expenditure and incomes in the company are appropriately analyzed. The company needs to streamline all the departmental heads. The departmental head should ensure all expenses in the departmental are tightened in order to provide extra cents in value in the earning per share. The effort the staff had displayed did not continue. We had achieved more than the company’s expectations. This made all staff members relax. If this continues, the earning per share may reach a record low value of 3 cents per share. Regardless of the internal conflicts a company has; the investors and stakeholders should not be dragged to the mud. The current situation may result to stakeholders selling their shares at a lower price. In this first quarter, the value per share i s at 47 cents. This is a 5 cent deficit from the previous year’s first quarter earnings. If all departments could maximize their efforts, the company would even be able to exceed the value of 52 cents per share. The earning 52 cents per share in one quarter shows the potential of this organization. In the board meeting we had after the first results of this quarter, all the shareholders had recommendations and corrections they would have implemented. These recommendations would enable the organization to add the value of its share. From the meeting, I realized the company was not operating at its full potential and with adjustments department head could increase the output of the company. It was also generated from the board meeting that investors would abandon the company if we do not register I higher share value in the second first quarter. Additionally, if this scenario does not change, shareholders may opt to sell their shares at lower prices in order to avoid getting ve ry low dividends. This meant that the second quarter of this financial year would be the determinant of whether or not the company will retain its shareholders and investors. The move to start streamlining the company from the departments is the fact that some departments played a significant role in the declining in the value of the company’s shares. For instance, the procurement department contributed to a 2 cents loss per share. This loss was generated from bad inventory the department had received. The negligence of this department made the company incur expenses in replacing the bad inventory. This expense could be avoided if the department was under proper management. In my opinion, the public presentation of the earning per share should be increased in figures. However, these adjustments should be made in consideration of what the earning peer share could be if all expenses remained constant in all quarters (6). The company should also use forecasts in planning the adj ustment. However, forecasted figures developed should be accurate. The agreement should also be jointly be reached upon by the management and board members. In my opinion, the management should consider increasing the earning per share by 5 cents. In adding 5 cents on the current 47 cents per share, the value will rise to 52 cents per share. Since we are at the first quarter, 52 cents earning per share will portray a good progress among the stakeholders. This will also lead

Friday, October 18, 2019

Surveillance in Private Investigations Research Paper

Surveillance in Private Investigations - Research Paper Example Surveillance is a French word which refers â€Å"to watch over† that is specifically used for the suspect and prisoner by the private investigators. It signifies the monitoring of behaviors, actions and changing information of the people who are the suspects by the investigators. This contains the observations of people at a distance through electronic devices as CCTV or electronic transmitted devices such as the internet and cell phones. Surveillance is an advanced technique which is used by the private investigators which requires training to avoid disruption in the process of investigation. Surveillance investigations are vital for the operations of various agencies of private investigation. Surveillance can be open or hidden and mobile and can involve several technical gadgets such as photography; motion activated sensors and GPS tracking devices. It might also use human interception by keeping a keen eye on the criminal or suspect. The physical surveillance is the common technique used by the investigators to derive important information regarding the suspect. It is the act of following the person in such a manner that the required information is gathered without even making the person aware. Investigators require patience and practice in following such method of surveillance. The process of surveillance is used to keep a social control over the community at large and to reduce the crime rate. It facilitates to maintain the security of the area and monitor threats to avoid or minimize criminal activities.

Knowledge of Human Cognitive Abilities and How it Can Help People to Coursework

Knowledge of Human Cognitive Abilities and How it Can Help People to Learn Computer Systems - Coursework Example And cognitive abilities are the processing skills of a brain to carry on a particular task. As Per (Michelone) â€Å"Cog ­ni ­tive abil ­i ­ties are the brain-based skills we need to carry out any task from the sim ­plest to the most com ­plex. They have more to do with the mech ­a ­nisms of how we learn, remem ­ber, problem-solve, and pay atten ­tion rather than with any actual knowl ­edge†. Generally speaking, cognitive abilities are the mechanism by which our brain operates to accomplish different tasks of our daily life. An in- depth study of cognitive skill greatly help a person to improve his learning capacity and task performing ability. Any learning or activity task can be segregated according to cognitive functioning and process can be made simpler and convenient accordingly. Everyone today knows that our world is operating extensively with the support of computers .And obviously, learning and performing computers tasks requires ample amount of c ognitive abilities and skills. So, if a person could enhance his cognitive abilities he can very well upgrade his level of understanding about the working system of computers. It not only essential for him to perceive thing systematically but also should be able to clearly differentiate every functions to make the learning process easy and less complicated. Learning computer is not a very easy task; it needs extensive use of memory, logic and cognitive skills. In computer learning there are different stages in which the learner pass through to achieve successful learning. Mainly the basics of computer learning may not require intense cognitive skills or capabilities. But as one cross the basic level and enters in to more complex learning session, the knowledge of cognitive skills becomes necessary and helpful. In advanced level of computer learning, like software development and data processing, high scale of information processing skills and decision making ability is required. Acc ording to (Singley,24) â€Å"When students are gives tasks beyond their skill level, the variability among students decreases. The better students are able to span the gap; the worst students are not†. Learning of programming and applying reasoning ability in the decision making process requires a great deal of memory, logic and brain processing. If a learner has knowledge about his cognitive abilities and have deeper understanding about the way in which brain operates, then he can learn things faster and easier. Decision making skill and problem solving skills are important in computer learning and if a learner understands his cognitive abilities he can gain much confidence in his learning process. Most Psychological theories consider that cognitive skills are multi faceted and are correlated with other abilities of an individual. It is usually seen that some people understand, grasp and solve things more quickly, while others require more time and energy. The understanding of personal cognitive ability is very essential for a person to develop his ability in learning process of computer systems. One should understand how the brain perceive things, process information and store information in short term and long term memory. The stability, diversity and growth of our personal mental processing and use and transformation of our external and internal information to think, learn and communicate are highly related. If we understand well the mental processing and brain mechanism then the learning of computer systems can be made simpler and less time consuming. It is very essential to understand the cognitive abiliti

A Philosophical Understanding of Researching Gangs in the NTE Essay

A Philosophical Understanding of Researching Gangs in the NTE - Essay Example As postulated by Plato, the Greek philosopher (427-347 BC), knowledge can be distinctively considered as â€Å"Justified True Belief†. The theory encompasses major queries regarding the basis of knowledge, the methodical approach of its acquisition, people’s understanding level, and how & why is it necessary to know what one perceives. There is a subtle difference epistemologically between the theory and practical (of what is gathered by experience) aspects of knowledge. (Watson, 2004) John Locke advocates the idea of Innatism, which proposes that the knowledge accumulated in an individual through experience, is actually born of that person’s pre-existing sub-conscious knowledge base. Empiricism is a theory of knowledge that lays emphasis on the role of experience, especially the experience based on constant observations by the five senses. Some empiricists think that all the knowledge is empirical while others separate mathematics and logic from the stream. (Fum erton, 2005) The German philosopher Immanuel Kant of the 18th century states, "although all our knowledge begins with experience, it does not follow that it arises from experience" (Taylor, 1989, p.80). From here also we get the essence of â€Å"Transcendental Absolute† as guided by the theorists of Innatism. In his works of Personal Knowledge, Michael Polanyi attempts to bring out the distinction between â€Å"knowing that† and â€Å"knowing how†. The level of consciousness is heightened through the attainments of multiple experiences and different perception levels. The epistemological approach identifies two basic types of knowledge; one is â€Å"A priori† which interprets the structure of knowledge is independent of empirical experiences and the other one â€Å"A posteriori† is justified by the experiencing through the practical way. Hume’s epistemological treatise on natural knowledge